Exam practice

• a.MFA: Multi-Factor Authentication
• b.2FA: Two-Factor Authentication
• c.ETA: Electronic Transactions Act
• d.VPN: Virtual Private Network
• e.DDoS: Distributed Denial of Service
• f.XSS: Cross-Site Scripting

Cybersecurity is the practice of protecting computer systems, networks, programs and digital information from theft, damage, unauthorized access and cyberattacks. It keeps data confidential (seen only by those allowed), correct (integrity) and available when needed. Its types include network, application, information and operational security; examples of its methods are strong passwords, multi-factor authentication, updates, firewalls and antivirus software.

Cyber law is the law of the internet: the laws that deal with computers, networks and what people do online. It makes computer crimes (hacking, damaging data, online fraud, publishing banned material) punishable, and makes electronic records and digital signatures count in law. Nepal’s main cyber law is the Electronic Transactions Act, 2063; the Muluki Criminal Code, 2074 and the Individual Privacy Act, 2075 add offenses against privacy.
The Constitution of Nepal (2015) is above every law, so cyber laws must follow it and carry out the rights it gives: the right to privacy (Article 28: a person’s documents, data and letters may not be intruded on except as the law allows), which cyber laws protect by punishing hacking and spying on messages; freedom of opinion and expression (Article 17) and the right to communication (Article 19), which cyber laws must respect, limiting speech online only for the reasons the Constitution allows, such as harmony between communities or decency; and the right to information (Article 27). So cyber law is how the Constitution’s rights are protected in the digital world.

A firewall is a security system, hardware or software, that checks the network connections coming into and going out of a device or network, and blocks those its rules don’t allow. It stops unauthorized users and unwanted traffic from the internet reaching a computer or private data (for example Windows Defender Firewall).
It differs from antivirus software:

A computer needs both.

A digital society is a society in which much of daily life happens through digital technology. In Nepal today we talk and share on messaging apps and social media, study through online classes and videos, pay with wallets and mobile banking, shop online, and use government services such as the Nagarik App and online forms. It makes life faster and opens learning and work to people far from cities. But it also brings cybercrime, misinformation, cyberbullying, loss of privacy, and a gap between those who have devices and skills and those who don’t. Living well in it needs digital citizens: people who use technology responsibly, protect their own and others’ data, behave respectfully online (netiquette), and follow the law.

Malware (malicious software) is any program made to harm a computer or its user: to damage files, steal data, spy, or take control, without the user’s permission.
Types:

• Virus: attaches to files or programs and spreads when they are copied and opened.
• Worm: copies itself from computer to computer through a network by itself.
• Trojan horse: looks like a useful program but does harm once installed.
• Ransomware: encrypts files and demands money to unlock them.
• Spyware (with keyloggers): secretly records what the user does, such as passwords typed.
• Adware: shows unwanted ads and slows the device.

Malware, short for malicious software, is any program written to harm a computer, a network or its user: to damage or delete data, steal information, spy on the user, demand money, or let an attacker take control, all without the user’s permission. It reaches a device through infected downloads and attachments, pen drives, fake apps, and holes in software that hasn’t been updated.
Types of malware:

1. Virus: a program that attaches itself to another program or file, and runs when that is opened. It spreads when infected files are copied (on pen drives, by email, in downloads), and may delete or damage files.
2. Worm: malware that spreads from computer to computer by itself, through networks, using holes in software. It needs no one to open a file, so it can reach thousands of computers in hours, slowing networks.
3. Trojan horse: malware disguised as a useful program, such as a free game or tool. The user installs it willingly; it then steals data or opens a way in for the attacker.
4. Ransomware: encrypts the victim’s files and demands money (a ransom) for the key. WannaCry (2017) hit computers in about 150 countries.
5. Spyware: secretly watches the user and sends what it collects to someone else; a keylogger records every key pressed, including passwords.
6. Adware: fills the device with unwanted ads, often tracking the user and slowing the device.

Protection: antivirus software kept updated, automatic updates, apps only from official stores, care with attachments and pen drives, and backups kept elsewhere.

A digital footprint (or digital shadow) is the record of information created by a person’s activities online: searches, posts, messages, emails, online shopping, calls and places visited with a phone. Like footprints in mud, it shows where a person has been and what they did, and it can be used to trace them and their devices.
It is of two types:

• Active footprint: information left knowingly, such as social media posts, comments, emails sent and forms filled in.
• Passive footprint: information collected without the user knowing, such as search history kept by a search engine, location data, browsing tracked by cookies, and data from fitness trackers.

Advantages:

• Health monitoring: smart watches and apps track fitness and health.
• Social connections: people find and keep in touch with others.
• Relevant ads: companies show ads based on interests.
• Law enforcement: police use online records as evidence to investigate crime.

Disadvantages:

• Security risks: others can track a person, leading to privacy breaches and identity theft.
• Legal and ethical concerns about how sensitive data is collected and used.
• Exploitation by businesses that sell users’ data without fair return.
• Cybercrime: criminals use footprints for fraud and convincing scams.
• Spying and online abuse: stalking and harassment.

It can be kept safe by updating privacy settings, sharing less, deleting old accounts, switching off location tracking and using strong passwords with MFA.

Safe browsing techniques are habits and tools that protect a user from cyber threats while using the web:

1. Use a secure connection: check that the address starts with https and the browser shows a padlock before typing passwords or paying; the data is then encrypted, so others on the network can’t read or change it. On public Wi-Fi, a VPN from a trusted provider adds an encrypted tunnel.
2. Use a secure browser, kept up to date: with private browsing, tracking protection, ad blocking, warnings about dangerous sites and a password manager; updates close security holes.
3. Use a secure search engine: one that filters out harmful sites (SafeSearch), warns about dangerous ones and, in privacy-focused ones such as DuckDuckGo, doesn’t keep a history of searches; be careful with ads at the top of results.
4. Use secure websites: read the address from the right to check the real owner, look for https, read the privacy policy and reviews, and type important addresses yourself instead of tapping links in messages.
5. Download only from official sources: apps from official stores, programs from the maker’s website; avoid pop-ups and unexpected attachments.
6. Protect logins: strong, unique passwords, and multi-factor authentication.
7. Clear cookies and log out on shared computers, or use incognito mode there.

Cybercrime is any illegal activity carried out by means of computers, phones or the internet, or against them, such as hacking, identity theft, phishing, spreading malware, DDoS attacks, online fraud and cyberbullying. In Nepal it is punished under the Electronic Transactions Act, 2063 and other laws, and reported to Nepal Police’s Cyber Bureau.
Methods of prevention:

1. Strong passwords: long (a passphrase of several random words), not guessable (no sequences, names, dates or single dictionary words), a different one for every account, never shared, changed at once if it may have leaked.
2. Multi-factor authentication: asking for a second kind of proof (a code on the phone, a fingerprint) besides the password, so a stolen password alone is useless.
3. Software updates: keeping the operating system, apps and antivirus up to date, with automatic updates, to close known security holes.
4. Authentication: a strong login system, so nobody can use a computer or account without permission; never sharing codes.
5. Firewall: switched on, to block unauthorized connections to the device or network.
6. Antivirus software: to scan for and remove malware.
7. Safe browsing and care with messages: checking addresses, using https, downloading only from official sources, and not trusting messages that rush you or ask for codes or money.
8. Backups kept elsewhere, so ransomware or a broken device doesn’t lose everything.

Netiquette (from “network” and “etiquette”) is the set of guidelines for polite, appropriate behavior online, in personal and professional use: in chat groups, social media, forums, email and video meetings. Online, people can’t see each other’s faces or hear their tone, so care is needed; the basic rule is to treat others with respect, as in person.
Guidelines:

1. Communicate respectfully: no insults or shouting (writing in capitals), even in disagreement.
2. Avoid offensive content: nothing hateful, violent or obscene.
3. Respect privacy: don’t share others’ personal information or photos without permission.
4. Avoid spamming and flooding groups with repeated messages.
5. Give credit when sharing others’ work.
6. Think before posting: is it true, kind and necessary?
7. Report abusive behavior instead of joining in.
8. Be open to constructive criticism.
9. Maintain a positive presence: be helpful and the same decent person online as offline.

Following netiquette keeps online spaces safe and pleasant, protects people’s feelings and privacy, and protects your own reputation.